Either your web browser doesn't support Javascript or it is currently turned off. In the latter case, please turn on Javascript support in your web browser and reload this page. Axons in the mammalian central nervous system CNS fail to regenerate after injury. Here we show that if retinal ganglion cell RGC activity is increased by visual stimulation or using chemogenetics, their axons regenerate. We also show that if enhancement of neural activity is combined with elevation of the cell growth-promoting pathway involving mammalian target of rapamycin mTOR , RGC axons regenerate the long distances necessary to re-innervate the brain. Analysis of genetically-labeled RGCs revealed this regrowth can be target specific: RGC axons navigated back to their correct visual targets and avoided targets incorrect for their function. Moreover, these regenerated connections were successful in partially rescuing a subset of visual behaviors. Our findings indicate that combining neural activity with activation of mTOR can serve as powerful tool for enhancing axon regeneration and they highlight the remarkable capacity of CNS neurons to re-establish accurate circuit connections in the adult brain.


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This review summarizes the brain mechanisms controlling sleep and wakefulness. Wakefulness promoting systems cause low-voltage, fast activity in the electroencephalogram EEG. Multiple interacting neurotransmitter systems in the brain stem, hypothalamus, and basal forebrain converge onto common effector systems in the thalamus and cortex. Sleep results from the inhibition of wake-promoting systems by homeostatic sleep factors such as adenosine and nitric oxide and GABAergic neurons in the preoptic area of the hypothalamus, resulting in large-amplitude, slow EEG oscillations. Local, activity-dependent factors modulate the amplitude and frequency of cortical slow oscillations.
B1-B9 Cell Groups (Serotonergic Cell Groups)
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B1-B9 is the original designation of nine seratonin-containing cell groups visualized in the brainstem by the use of fluorescent histochemical methods. Some of these serotonergic groups project caudally to the spinal cord and others rostrally to different parts of the forebrain. Reflex response elicited preferably by a blunt rodlike instrument stroked along the lateral footsole from heel to toes. In neurologically normal adult persons, the stimulus elicits a flexor of foot and toes. Lesions limited to the pyramidal tract produce a Babinski sign and paresis i. Pyramidal Tract.